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Thursday, September 30, 2010
How to Write a Narrative
Major Components of Stories
Plot is the organization of events that will take place in the story.
Characters are the people or animals who will be in the story.
Setting is the physical time and place in which the story takes place.
Dialogue is the spoken words of the characters in the story.
Point of view is the relative identification of the narrator with the characters.
Theme is the main idea or meaning behind a story.
Style is the writer's use of the language.
Plot
Plot (and characters) carries the other elements of the story. The plot must be believable, plausible, and interesting. It is a sequence of events connected in a cause-and-effect manner. Generally the plot consists of a series of increasingly more intense conflicts, a climax (the most intense part of the story), and a final resolution. The plot must be advanced as the story unfolds. Usually the closer to the end of the story the climax is placed the better.
Long works like novels can have many subplots and secondary climaxes and resolutions. Avoid using subplots in order to have cliché characters. Avoid too many coincidences.
Flashbacks have been overused. A story is stronger when it runs chronologically.
Characters
The reader should be able to identify with and care about the characters in the sense that the characters seem real to the reader. The characters must do something, and what they do must seem reasonable for them to have done it.
Characters should be introduced early in the story. The more often a character is mentioned or appears, the more significance the reader will attach to the character. Also, the main character should be introduced before setting, so that the setting can be introduced from the point of view of the character.
The nature of characters can be brought out through minimal description and the actions, thoughts, and dialogue of the characters. The writer should allow the reader to make judgments about the characters; the writer should avoid making the judgments for the reader. The feelings of the character should be demonstrated rather than told by the narrator.
Yet, there are some very good stories in which much of the narration is about a character's feelings and thoughts or in which the narration goes into great detail and analysis of a character's feelings and thoughts at some point. So one rule about writing is that there are no rules, or maybe: If it works, it works.
Setting
Setting includes the place and time in which the story takes place. The setting should be described in specifics to make the story seem real, to set the atmosphere and mood of the story, to place limitations on the characters, or to help establish the basic conflict of the story. Weather can be an important part of setting.
The setting can be used for contrast, having something taking place in an unexpected place. Also, the more unfamiliar the reader is with the setting, the more interesting the setting.
Dialogue
Dialogue makes fiction seem real. However, dialogue that copies reality may actually slow down a story. Avoid unnecessary or repetitive dialogue.
Dialect in dialogue can be difficult to read. A small amount of it can be used to establish the nature of a character, but overuse will intrude on the story. The level of use of language by the characters- pronunciation, diction, grammar, etc.- is often used to characterize people in a story. Most often the main characters use the best English.
Profanity and vulgarisms can be used where they seem appropriate. Overuse amounts to author intrusion and can interrupt the reader's belief in the story.
Too much exposition through dialogue can slow down a story. Characters should not repeat in dialogue events which have already happened in the story.
Also, one character should not tell another character what the second character should already know just so the writer can convey information to the reader. The conversation will sound implausible: author intrusion. The information can be conveyed in simple narration or by having a knowledgeable character explain something to another character who reasonably should not know the information already.
The form of dialogue should be varied to keep the reader interested. However, don't try to find too many different ways to say "said."
Interior dialogue is what a character is thinking. Dramatic dialogue is a character thinking out loud, without response from other characters. Indirect dialogue is the narrator telling what a character said.
Dialogue should be used to develop character or to advance the story. It should not be used just to hear characters talk.
Point of View
First person point of view has the main character telling the story or a secondary character telling the main character's story. Everything that happens in the story must be seen or experienced by the character doing the narration. The reader's judgment of other characters in the story will be heavily influenced by the narrator. This can be very limiting. Also, a story written in first person usually means that the main character won't die in the story. However, first person point of view gives a sense of intimacy to the story.
Third person point of view can be objective or omniscient. An objective narrator describes actions but not the inner thoughts or feelings of the characters. An omniscient narrator can describe all the actions of all of the characters but also all of their inner thoughts and feelings as well.
Theme
The theme of a story is often abstract and not addressed directly in the narrative. It is imparted to the story by the concrete events occurring in the story.
Style
Style is the way the writer uses language. The longer the work the less important language becomes. Above all, the writer's work must tell a story. The writer should not be more concerned with the words used than with the story the writer is trying to tell. Don't be a fanatic about words. The language is less important than character and plot. However, a combination of a good story and good English will be a delight to read.
The most effective writing uses the active voice. Shorter, concrete words tend to be stronger. Long words tend to be abstract. Avoid wordiness. Write in a concise, precise, concrete, and specific manner. However, recognize that English has an enormous number of words in it, and the words can have very precise meanings. Sometimes no other word will do. And be specific. Don't mention just a tree; say what kind of tree it was.
The choice of words can help set the tone of the story.
Beginning writers may get defensive and touchy about their style. When offered constructive (or maybe destructive) criticism about their style, beginning writers may tend to say something like,"Well, that's just my style." The implication being that the reader must like whatever style the writer chooses to use. But that is backwards. It is up to the writer to please the reader, not the other way around.
Other Tips
*Be specific in your writing. The more specific the detail, the more real the story will seem to the reader.
*Becoming a skilled typist (on a word processor) is extremely useful to a writer.
*Revision is important. A writer can always do one more revision. At some point the writer has to stop revising and get the work published.
*Show, don't tell.
*Avoid starting a story with dialogue.
*Don't use clichés.
*The more detail in the story, the more interesting the story.
*Revise, revise, revise, revise, . . .
*Write what you like to read.
*Don't use exclamation points.
*Use surprise and irony.
*The shorter the story, the more important each word becomes.
*Avoid overused words.
*Every word can be used appropriately somewhere in some story.
*Don't tell what happened; recreate what happened.
*The beginning of a story must be interesting. Readers can be lost on page one.
Now, enjoy the pleasure of writing!!!
Miss Bárbara.
Plot is the organization of events that will take place in the story.
Characters are the people or animals who will be in the story.
Setting is the physical time and place in which the story takes place.
Dialogue is the spoken words of the characters in the story.
Point of view is the relative identification of the narrator with the characters.
Theme is the main idea or meaning behind a story.
Style is the writer's use of the language.
Plot
Plot (and characters) carries the other elements of the story. The plot must be believable, plausible, and interesting. It is a sequence of events connected in a cause-and-effect manner. Generally the plot consists of a series of increasingly more intense conflicts, a climax (the most intense part of the story), and a final resolution. The plot must be advanced as the story unfolds. Usually the closer to the end of the story the climax is placed the better.
Long works like novels can have many subplots and secondary climaxes and resolutions. Avoid using subplots in order to have cliché characters. Avoid too many coincidences.
Flashbacks have been overused. A story is stronger when it runs chronologically.
Characters
The reader should be able to identify with and care about the characters in the sense that the characters seem real to the reader. The characters must do something, and what they do must seem reasonable for them to have done it.
Characters should be introduced early in the story. The more often a character is mentioned or appears, the more significance the reader will attach to the character. Also, the main character should be introduced before setting, so that the setting can be introduced from the point of view of the character.
The nature of characters can be brought out through minimal description and the actions, thoughts, and dialogue of the characters. The writer should allow the reader to make judgments about the characters; the writer should avoid making the judgments for the reader. The feelings of the character should be demonstrated rather than told by the narrator.
Yet, there are some very good stories in which much of the narration is about a character's feelings and thoughts or in which the narration goes into great detail and analysis of a character's feelings and thoughts at some point. So one rule about writing is that there are no rules, or maybe: If it works, it works.
Setting
Setting includes the place and time in which the story takes place. The setting should be described in specifics to make the story seem real, to set the atmosphere and mood of the story, to place limitations on the characters, or to help establish the basic conflict of the story. Weather can be an important part of setting.
The setting can be used for contrast, having something taking place in an unexpected place. Also, the more unfamiliar the reader is with the setting, the more interesting the setting.
Dialogue
Dialogue makes fiction seem real. However, dialogue that copies reality may actually slow down a story. Avoid unnecessary or repetitive dialogue.
Dialect in dialogue can be difficult to read. A small amount of it can be used to establish the nature of a character, but overuse will intrude on the story. The level of use of language by the characters- pronunciation, diction, grammar, etc.- is often used to characterize people in a story. Most often the main characters use the best English.
Profanity and vulgarisms can be used where they seem appropriate. Overuse amounts to author intrusion and can interrupt the reader's belief in the story.
Too much exposition through dialogue can slow down a story. Characters should not repeat in dialogue events which have already happened in the story.
Also, one character should not tell another character what the second character should already know just so the writer can convey information to the reader. The conversation will sound implausible: author intrusion. The information can be conveyed in simple narration or by having a knowledgeable character explain something to another character who reasonably should not know the information already.
The form of dialogue should be varied to keep the reader interested. However, don't try to find too many different ways to say "said."
Interior dialogue is what a character is thinking. Dramatic dialogue is a character thinking out loud, without response from other characters. Indirect dialogue is the narrator telling what a character said.
Dialogue should be used to develop character or to advance the story. It should not be used just to hear characters talk.
Point of View
First person point of view has the main character telling the story or a secondary character telling the main character's story. Everything that happens in the story must be seen or experienced by the character doing the narration. The reader's judgment of other characters in the story will be heavily influenced by the narrator. This can be very limiting. Also, a story written in first person usually means that the main character won't die in the story. However, first person point of view gives a sense of intimacy to the story.
Third person point of view can be objective or omniscient. An objective narrator describes actions but not the inner thoughts or feelings of the characters. An omniscient narrator can describe all the actions of all of the characters but also all of their inner thoughts and feelings as well.
Theme
The theme of a story is often abstract and not addressed directly in the narrative. It is imparted to the story by the concrete events occurring in the story.
Style
Style is the way the writer uses language. The longer the work the less important language becomes. Above all, the writer's work must tell a story. The writer should not be more concerned with the words used than with the story the writer is trying to tell. Don't be a fanatic about words. The language is less important than character and plot. However, a combination of a good story and good English will be a delight to read.
The most effective writing uses the active voice. Shorter, concrete words tend to be stronger. Long words tend to be abstract. Avoid wordiness. Write in a concise, precise, concrete, and specific manner. However, recognize that English has an enormous number of words in it, and the words can have very precise meanings. Sometimes no other word will do. And be specific. Don't mention just a tree; say what kind of tree it was.
The choice of words can help set the tone of the story.
Beginning writers may get defensive and touchy about their style. When offered constructive (or maybe destructive) criticism about their style, beginning writers may tend to say something like,"Well, that's just my style." The implication being that the reader must like whatever style the writer chooses to use. But that is backwards. It is up to the writer to please the reader, not the other way around.
Other Tips
*Be specific in your writing. The more specific the detail, the more real the story will seem to the reader.
*Becoming a skilled typist (on a word processor) is extremely useful to a writer.
*Revision is important. A writer can always do one more revision. At some point the writer has to stop revising and get the work published.
*Show, don't tell.
*Avoid starting a story with dialogue.
*Don't use clichés.
*The more detail in the story, the more interesting the story.
*Revise, revise, revise, revise, . . .
*Write what you like to read.
*Don't use exclamation points.
*Use surprise and irony.
*The shorter the story, the more important each word becomes.
*Avoid overused words.
*Every word can be used appropriately somewhere in some story.
*Don't tell what happened; recreate what happened.
*The beginning of a story must be interesting. Readers can be lost on page one.
Now, enjoy the pleasure of writing!!!
Miss Bárbara.
Wednesday, September 29, 2010
Friday, September 24, 2010
Tuesday, September 14, 2010
Letter of Complaint- Some tips
Complaint Letters
An effective complaint letter is short and to the point and includes documentation. Written correctly it can also help make your voice heard and achieve your goals.
How to write a complaint letter that gets results
Keep in mind that most errors are unintentional
and realize that most businesses and organizations want to address and clear up complaints quickly in order to have satisfied customers or members.
Address your letter to a specific person
Letters addressed to "Dear Sir" or "To Whom it May Concern" are not as effective and will likely not reach the right person. Call ahead and ask for the name of the manager and his or her administrative assistant. Writing to the assistant may ensure your letter reaches the manager.
Begin your letter on a positive tone
Consider how you'd react if an angry customer approaches you and shouts obscenities versus someone who smiles who begins the conversion with compliments.
Be brief
Keep your complaint letter to one page, and write short paragraphs rather than long ones.
Be honest and straightforward
Include sufficient detail to back up your claim and to show that you have thoroughly researched the subject. However, omit irrelevant details.
Maintain a firm but respectful tone, and avoid aggressive, accusing language
Keep your complaint letter concise and professional.
Send only photocopies of receipts and other documents, and retain all originals
Keep a copy of the complaint letter for your records.
Get other signatures
In many cases, you can increase the effectiveness of your letter by getting several others to sign it with you. This is particularly the case when trying to influence or change legislation, denouncing material from the media, and so forth.
Do not threaten!
If a company has repeatedly given you bad service and refuses to correct the situation and you feel that your only recourse is to pursue legal action, voice your feelings in a tactful but firm way. However, don't threaten legal action unless you are willing to follow through with it.
Avoid making generalizations
about the company or organization if your complaint letter focuses on a single individual.
Use tact, and be direct, but respectful
If you need to make a complaint to or about people that you will still have contact with on a regular basis, your complaint needs to accomplish its purpose without destroying the relationship.
Include your contact information
Include your name, address, phone number, and e-mail address, if desired, so that the person(s) can reach you to discuss any questions or concerns.
If a first letter does not bring action, assume a stronger but still respectful tone in the next one.
If two or three letters do not resolve the problem, send one to the president or CEO of the company or entity. In each case, be firm but polite.
With a well-written complaint letter you can:
•Clearly make your complaint to the person(s) involved.
•State plainly and directly your reason(s) for making the complaint.
•Indicate what the reader can or should do to address your complaint, and specify how long you are willing to wait to have your complaint resolved. (Be reasonable.)
•Communicate clearly, but respectfully, that you are dissatisfied with the service you have received.
•Explain why your suggestion or request for retribution should be granted (if you made one).
•Make your concerns known to politicians and bureaucrats. (Note: Your letter is more likely to be answered if you discuss specific concerns rather than political issues.)
An effective complaint letter is short and to the point and includes documentation. Written correctly it can also help make your voice heard and achieve your goals.
How to write a complaint letter that gets results
Keep in mind that most errors are unintentional
and realize that most businesses and organizations want to address and clear up complaints quickly in order to have satisfied customers or members.
Address your letter to a specific person
Letters addressed to "Dear Sir" or "To Whom it May Concern" are not as effective and will likely not reach the right person. Call ahead and ask for the name of the manager and his or her administrative assistant. Writing to the assistant may ensure your letter reaches the manager.
Begin your letter on a positive tone
Consider how you'd react if an angry customer approaches you and shouts obscenities versus someone who smiles who begins the conversion with compliments.
Be brief
Keep your complaint letter to one page, and write short paragraphs rather than long ones.
Be honest and straightforward
Include sufficient detail to back up your claim and to show that you have thoroughly researched the subject. However, omit irrelevant details.
Maintain a firm but respectful tone, and avoid aggressive, accusing language
Keep your complaint letter concise and professional.
Send only photocopies of receipts and other documents, and retain all originals
Keep a copy of the complaint letter for your records.
Get other signatures
In many cases, you can increase the effectiveness of your letter by getting several others to sign it with you. This is particularly the case when trying to influence or change legislation, denouncing material from the media, and so forth.
Do not threaten!
If a company has repeatedly given you bad service and refuses to correct the situation and you feel that your only recourse is to pursue legal action, voice your feelings in a tactful but firm way. However, don't threaten legal action unless you are willing to follow through with it.
Avoid making generalizations
about the company or organization if your complaint letter focuses on a single individual.
Use tact, and be direct, but respectful
If you need to make a complaint to or about people that you will still have contact with on a regular basis, your complaint needs to accomplish its purpose without destroying the relationship.
Include your contact information
Include your name, address, phone number, and e-mail address, if desired, so that the person(s) can reach you to discuss any questions or concerns.
If a first letter does not bring action, assume a stronger but still respectful tone in the next one.
If two or three letters do not resolve the problem, send one to the president or CEO of the company or entity. In each case, be firm but polite.
With a well-written complaint letter you can:
•Clearly make your complaint to the person(s) involved.
•State plainly and directly your reason(s) for making the complaint.
•Indicate what the reader can or should do to address your complaint, and specify how long you are willing to wait to have your complaint resolved. (Be reasonable.)
•Communicate clearly, but respectfully, that you are dissatisfied with the service you have received.
•Explain why your suggestion or request for retribution should be granted (if you made one).
•Make your concerns known to politicians and bureaucrats. (Note: Your letter is more likely to be answered if you discuss specific concerns rather than political issues.)
Friday, August 20, 2010
Sunday, August 1, 2010
Saturday, July 17, 2010
Thursday, July 15, 2010
Saturday, July 10, 2010
Pronunciation of the -ed.
Voiceless sound: – p – k – s – ch – sh – f – x – h - pronounce ED as “T”
Example: Ask, asked = ask(T)
Ed as “T”
asked
baked
brushed
cooked
cracked
crashed
danced (da:ns) + t
dressed
dropped
escaped
finished
fixed
guessed
helped
hoped
hiked
joked
jumped
knocked
kissed
laughed (læf) + t
locked
looked
missed
mixed
packed
passed
picked
pressed
pushed
pronounced
relaxed
slipped
smoked
stopped
shopped
talked
typed
walked
washed
watched
worked
Voiced sound : – l – v – n – m – r – b – v – g – w – y – z – and vowel sounds (diphthongs) pronounce ED as “D”
Example: Allow, allowed = allow(D)
Ed as “D”
advised (ad’vaiz) + d
agreed
allowed
answered
appeared
arrived
believed
belonged
burned
called
carried
changed
cleaned
closed
covered
cried
damaged
described
died
dried
earned
encouraged
enjoyed
entered
explained
explored
filled
followed
happened
interviewed
imagined
jailed
killed
listened
lived
loved
measured
moved
opened
planned
played
performed
pulled
realized
remembered
rained
repaired
saved
shared
shaved
showed
signed
slammed
stayed
snowed
studied
tried
traveled
turned
used
welcomed
whispered
worried
yawned
T or D pronounce ED as “ID”
Example: Need, needed = need(id)
Ed as “ID”
accepted
afforded
attended
arrested
collected
contacted
counted
decided
defended
demanded
divided
ended
expanded
expected
exported
flooded
graduated
hated
hunted
included
invited
invented
landed
needed
painted
planted
printed
presented
pretended
protected
provided
rented
repeated
reported
respected
rested
scolded
skated
started
shouted
treated
visited
waited
wanted
wasted
Start practising!
Example: Ask, asked = ask(T)
Ed as “T”
asked
baked
brushed
cooked
cracked
crashed
danced (da:ns) + t
dressed
dropped
escaped
finished
fixed
guessed
helped
hoped
hiked
joked
jumped
knocked
kissed
laughed (læf) + t
locked
looked
missed
mixed
packed
passed
picked
pressed
pushed
pronounced
relaxed
slipped
smoked
stopped
shopped
talked
typed
walked
washed
watched
worked
Voiced sound : – l – v – n – m – r – b – v – g – w – y – z – and vowel sounds (diphthongs) pronounce ED as “D”
Example: Allow, allowed = allow(D)
Ed as “D”
advised (ad’vaiz) + d
agreed
allowed
answered
appeared
arrived
believed
belonged
burned
called
carried
changed
cleaned
closed
covered
cried
damaged
described
died
dried
earned
encouraged
enjoyed
entered
explained
explored
filled
followed
happened
interviewed
imagined
jailed
killed
listened
lived
loved
measured
moved
opened
planned
played
performed
pulled
realized
remembered
rained
repaired
saved
shared
shaved
showed
signed
slammed
stayed
snowed
studied
tried
traveled
turned
used
welcomed
whispered
worried
yawned
T or D pronounce ED as “ID”
Example: Need, needed = need(id)
Ed as “ID”
accepted
afforded
attended
arrested
collected
contacted
counted
decided
defended
demanded
divided
ended
expanded
expected
exported
flooded
graduated
hated
hunted
included
invited
invented
landed
needed
painted
planted
printed
presented
pretended
protected
provided
rented
repeated
reported
respected
rested
scolded
skated
started
shouted
treated
visited
waited
wanted
wasted
Start practising!
Wednesday, June 9, 2010
Saturday, June 5, 2010
Monday, May 24, 2010
Wednesday, May 12, 2010
Saturday, May 8, 2010
Wednesday, January 27, 2010
Thursday, January 7, 2010
Punctuation
MARKS OF PUNCTUATION
I. Definition: The punctuation marks separate, group, and qualify words and elements in sentences. They help us to suggest the pauses, intonations, and gestures that would be used in speech.
II. Classification:
2 main kinds: Separate Punctuation Marks and End Punctuation Marks.
1) The Comma ( , ):
--> Is used within sentences to reflect structure and to clarify meaning.
Eg: This novel, a best seller, has no real literary merit.
--> Is used to separate independent clauses joined by coordinative conjunction.
Eg: The sky was clear and the weather was fine at Philadelphia, and the pilot requested permission to land there.
But when the clauses are short, the comma can be omitted.
Eg: The sky was clear and the pilot landed.
--> Is used between words, phrases, or clauses in a series.
Eg: The closet contains worn clothes, old shoes, and dirty hats.
--> Is used after a long introductory subordinate phrase or clause.
Eg: Living for centuries, redwoods often reach a height of three hundred feet.
--> Is used to set off non-restrictive appositives, phrases and clauses (non-defining clauses).
Eg: Oil, which is lighter than water, rises to the surface.
--> Is used with sentence modifiers, conjunctive adverbs, and sentence elements out of normal word order.
Eg: Only a very few poets, unfortunately, earned their living by writing.
Her exams, I believe, will be successful.
He arrived late, however, he didn’t say an excuse.
--> Is used to mark off narrative from a direct quotation that is neither a question or an exclamation.
Eg: Mary said, ‘I have done it ahead of time”.
--> Is used to separate a question tag from the rest of the sentence.
Eg: Haven’t learnt it, have you?
--> Is used for grouping numbers into units of three in separating thousand, million,…
Eg: 1,000,000
--> Is used with degrees, titles, elements in dates, places, and addresses,…
Eg: David Moors, M.A., Ph. D., came to the reception.
--> Is used with mild interjections, words like YES/NO in direct address, and after the salutation of a personal letter.
Eg: Well, I don’t think that you are correct this time.
No, she quite disagreed with my suggestion.
Dear John, it has been some time since I have written…
2) The Semi-colon ( ; ):
--> Is used to link main clauses not joined by conjunction.
Eg: Some people can write well; others can not.
--> Is used to link main clauses joined by conjunctive adverbs ( however, furthermore, consequently ):
Eg: Speeding is illegal; Furthermore it is very dangerous.
--> Is used to link clauses which themselves contain commas even when such clauses are joined by conjunctions.
Eg: She lives in a small cottage in Cooma, miles from the nearest town; The cottage is without gas, running water or electricity.
3) The Colon ( : ):
--> Is used quotations, statements and series which are introduced formally.
Eg: Three countries were represented: England, France and Italy.
He began his speech: “Ladies and Gentlemen…”
--> Is used between two independent clauses when the second explains or amplifies the first.
Eg: Music is more than something mechanical: it is an expression of deep feeling and ethical values.
--> Is used before formal appositives, including those introduced by such expressions as: namely and that is.
Eg: Our conduct, the dean said, would have one result: dismissal.
He gave us only one warning: namely, that we should not demonstrate again.
--> Is used between hours and minutes to indicate time in bibliographical (thư mục) entries, etc.
Eg: The plane took off at 15:45’.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
4) The Full stop or period ( . ):
--> Is used to end a sentence which is neither a question or an exclamation.
Eg: She didn’t come as she had promised.
--> Is used after most abbreviation and contractions.
Eg: Mr., Dr., Ave., B.C.,…
5) The Exclamation mark ( ! ):
--> Is used after a word, phrase, or sentence to signal strong exclamatory feeling.
Eg: What a nice day!
“Help! Help!”, she cried loud.
6) The Question mark ( ? ):
--> Is used to end a direct question.
Eg: Do you understand what I say?
It is good for you, isn’t it?
--> Is used to indicate the writer’s uncertainty.
Eg: Pythagoras, who died in 497 B.C. (?) , was a great mathematician.
7) The Dash ( - ):
--> Is used to indicate interruption and special emphasis, and to introduce summaries.
Eg: He replied, “I will consider the – No, I won’t either.”
Attic fans, window fan, air conditioners – nothing would counteract the fierce humidity of that summer.
--> Is used to mark an abrupt change or break in the continuity of a sentence.
Eg: There are many doctors – indeed, some surgeons – who have never witnessed a heart transplant.
--> Is used to replace a word or part of a word that is considered taboo.
Eg: Oh, dear! Where is the – ing key?
--> Is used to indicate duration or distance between two points in time or space.
Eg: 1945 – 1998.
Southamton – New York.
8) The Parentheses ( ):
--> Are used to enclose loosely related comment or explanation within a sentence, and to enclose figures numbering items in a series.
Eg: The oil company refused to buy the land (1) because the owner had no clear title to the property and (2) because it was too far from the company’s other wells.
He is hoping (as we all are) that this time he will succeed.
He was vice chairman of that company (1992 – 1995).
9) The Square Brackets [ ]:
--> Are used to enclose interpolations in quotations.
Eg: I have read some famous literature works , such as: Don Quixote [by Miguel de Servantes], and Ivanhoe [by Sir Walter Scott].
10) The Quotation marks ( “ ” or ‘ ’ ):
--> Are used to enclose direct quotations and dialogue.
Eg: He said: “I am leaving tomorrow morning.”
--> Are used to enclose the titles of essays, articles, short stories, short poems, etc.
Eg: “The secret life of Walter Mitty” is the story of a day-dreamer.
--> Are used to enclose words or phrases borrowed from others or used in a special way.
Eg: He called him “emperor” but he was really just a director.
--> Are used to disclaim responsibility for an expression.
Eg: He was arrested for smuggling “crag”.
Her “hubby” had bought her a new car.
11) The Apostrophe ( ' ):
--> Is used to indicate the possessive case of nouns and indefinite pronouns.
Eg: This is Mary’s bag.
To make up one’s mind is not easy sometimes.
--> Is used to mark omission in contracted words.
Eg: isn’t, didn’t,…
12) The Hyphen ( - ):
--> Is used to mark the break an unfinished word at the end of a line.
--> Is used between a prefix and a proper name or when the emphasis is on the prefix.
Eg: Co-ordination, Ex-directory, Post-Renaissance…
--> Is used in compound numerals form twenty-one to ninety-nine.
Eg: Twenty-four, fifty-seven, eighty-eight.
--> Is used between parts of compound words.
Eg: Form-word, body-building, pocket-book, head-noun…
--> Is used between elements of the modifier in attributive position in order to avoid ambiguity.
Eg: He is a small-businessman.
She has grey-green eyes.
He looked across her with a don’t-ask-me expression.
I. Definition: The punctuation marks separate, group, and qualify words and elements in sentences. They help us to suggest the pauses, intonations, and gestures that would be used in speech.
II. Classification:
2 main kinds: Separate Punctuation Marks and End Punctuation Marks.
1) The Comma ( , ):
--> Is used within sentences to reflect structure and to clarify meaning.
Eg: This novel, a best seller, has no real literary merit.
--> Is used to separate independent clauses joined by coordinative conjunction.
Eg: The sky was clear and the weather was fine at Philadelphia, and the pilot requested permission to land there.
But when the clauses are short, the comma can be omitted.
Eg: The sky was clear and the pilot landed.
--> Is used between words, phrases, or clauses in a series.
Eg: The closet contains worn clothes, old shoes, and dirty hats.
--> Is used after a long introductory subordinate phrase or clause.
Eg: Living for centuries, redwoods often reach a height of three hundred feet.
--> Is used to set off non-restrictive appositives, phrases and clauses (non-defining clauses).
Eg: Oil, which is lighter than water, rises to the surface.
--> Is used with sentence modifiers, conjunctive adverbs, and sentence elements out of normal word order.
Eg: Only a very few poets, unfortunately, earned their living by writing.
Her exams, I believe, will be successful.
He arrived late, however, he didn’t say an excuse.
--> Is used to mark off narrative from a direct quotation that is neither a question or an exclamation.
Eg: Mary said, ‘I have done it ahead of time”.
--> Is used to separate a question tag from the rest of the sentence.
Eg: Haven’t learnt it, have you?
--> Is used for grouping numbers into units of three in separating thousand, million,…
Eg: 1,000,000
--> Is used with degrees, titles, elements in dates, places, and addresses,…
Eg: David Moors, M.A., Ph. D., came to the reception.
--> Is used with mild interjections, words like YES/NO in direct address, and after the salutation of a personal letter.
Eg: Well, I don’t think that you are correct this time.
No, she quite disagreed with my suggestion.
Dear John, it has been some time since I have written…
2) The Semi-colon ( ; ):
--> Is used to link main clauses not joined by conjunction.
Eg: Some people can write well; others can not.
--> Is used to link main clauses joined by conjunctive adverbs ( however, furthermore, consequently ):
Eg: Speeding is illegal; Furthermore it is very dangerous.
--> Is used to link clauses which themselves contain commas even when such clauses are joined by conjunctions.
Eg: She lives in a small cottage in Cooma, miles from the nearest town; The cottage is without gas, running water or electricity.
3) The Colon ( : ):
--> Is used quotations, statements and series which are introduced formally.
Eg: Three countries were represented: England, France and Italy.
He began his speech: “Ladies and Gentlemen…”
--> Is used between two independent clauses when the second explains or amplifies the first.
Eg: Music is more than something mechanical: it is an expression of deep feeling and ethical values.
--> Is used before formal appositives, including those introduced by such expressions as: namely and that is.
Eg: Our conduct, the dean said, would have one result: dismissal.
He gave us only one warning: namely, that we should not demonstrate again.
--> Is used between hours and minutes to indicate time in bibliographical (thư mục) entries, etc.
Eg: The plane took off at 15:45’.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
4) The Full stop or period ( . ):
--> Is used to end a sentence which is neither a question or an exclamation.
Eg: She didn’t come as she had promised.
--> Is used after most abbreviation and contractions.
Eg: Mr., Dr., Ave., B.C.,…
5) The Exclamation mark ( ! ):
--> Is used after a word, phrase, or sentence to signal strong exclamatory feeling.
Eg: What a nice day!
“Help! Help!”, she cried loud.
6) The Question mark ( ? ):
--> Is used to end a direct question.
Eg: Do you understand what I say?
It is good for you, isn’t it?
--> Is used to indicate the writer’s uncertainty.
Eg: Pythagoras, who died in 497 B.C. (?) , was a great mathematician.
7) The Dash ( - ):
--> Is used to indicate interruption and special emphasis, and to introduce summaries.
Eg: He replied, “I will consider the – No, I won’t either.”
Attic fans, window fan, air conditioners – nothing would counteract the fierce humidity of that summer.
--> Is used to mark an abrupt change or break in the continuity of a sentence.
Eg: There are many doctors – indeed, some surgeons – who have never witnessed a heart transplant.
--> Is used to replace a word or part of a word that is considered taboo.
Eg: Oh, dear! Where is the – ing key?
--> Is used to indicate duration or distance between two points in time or space.
Eg: 1945 – 1998.
Southamton – New York.
8) The Parentheses ( ):
--> Are used to enclose loosely related comment or explanation within a sentence, and to enclose figures numbering items in a series.
Eg: The oil company refused to buy the land (1) because the owner had no clear title to the property and (2) because it was too far from the company’s other wells.
He is hoping (as we all are) that this time he will succeed.
He was vice chairman of that company (1992 – 1995).
9) The Square Brackets [ ]:
--> Are used to enclose interpolations in quotations.
Eg: I have read some famous literature works , such as: Don Quixote [by Miguel de Servantes], and Ivanhoe [by Sir Walter Scott].
10) The Quotation marks ( “ ” or ‘ ’ ):
--> Are used to enclose direct quotations and dialogue.
Eg: He said: “I am leaving tomorrow morning.”
--> Are used to enclose the titles of essays, articles, short stories, short poems, etc.
Eg: “The secret life of Walter Mitty” is the story of a day-dreamer.
--> Are used to enclose words or phrases borrowed from others or used in a special way.
Eg: He called him “emperor” but he was really just a director.
--> Are used to disclaim responsibility for an expression.
Eg: He was arrested for smuggling “crag”.
Her “hubby” had bought her a new car.
11) The Apostrophe ( ' ):
--> Is used to indicate the possessive case of nouns and indefinite pronouns.
Eg: This is Mary’s bag.
To make up one’s mind is not easy sometimes.
--> Is used to mark omission in contracted words.
Eg: isn’t, didn’t,…
12) The Hyphen ( - ):
--> Is used to mark the break an unfinished word at the end of a line.
--> Is used between a prefix and a proper name or when the emphasis is on the prefix.
Eg: Co-ordination, Ex-directory, Post-Renaissance…
--> Is used in compound numerals form twenty-one to ninety-nine.
Eg: Twenty-four, fifty-seven, eighty-eight.
--> Is used between parts of compound words.
Eg: Form-word, body-building, pocket-book, head-noun…
--> Is used between elements of the modifier in attributive position in order to avoid ambiguity.
Eg: He is a small-businessman.
She has grey-green eyes.
He looked across her with a don’t-ask-me expression.
Monday, January 4, 2010
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