Punctuation

MARKS OF PUNCTUATION

I. Definition: The punctuation marks separate, group, and qualify words and elements in sentences. They help us to suggest the pauses, intonations, and gestures that would be used in speech.

II. Classification:
2 main kinds: Separate Punctuation Marks and End Punctuation Marks.

1) The Comma ( , ):
--> Is used within sentences to reflect structure and to clarify meaning.
Eg: This novel, a best seller, has no real literary merit.
--> Is used to separate independent clauses joined by coordinative conjunction.
Eg: The sky was clear and the weather was fine at Philadelphia, and the pilot requested permission to land there.
But when the clauses are short, the comma can be omitted.
Eg: The sky was clear and the pilot landed.
--> Is used between words, phrases, or clauses in a series.
Eg: The closet contains worn clothes, old shoes, and dirty hats.
--> Is used after a long introductory subordinate phrase or clause.
Eg: Living for centuries, redwoods often reach a height of three hundred feet.
--> Is used to set off non-restrictive appositives, phrases and clauses (non-defining clauses).
Eg: Oil, which is lighter than water, rises to the surface.
--> Is used with sentence modifiers, conjunctive adverbs, and sentence elements out of normal word order.
Eg: Only a very few poets, unfortunately, earned their living by writing.
Her exams, I believe, will be successful.
He arrived late, however, he didn’t say an excuse.
--> Is used to mark off narrative from a direct quotation that is neither a question or an exclamation.
Eg: Mary said, ‘I have done it ahead of time”.
--> Is used to separate a question tag from the rest of the sentence.
Eg: Haven’t learnt it, have you?
--> Is used for grouping numbers into units of three in separating thousand, million,…
Eg: 1,000,000
--> Is used with degrees, titles, elements in dates, places, and addresses,…
Eg: David Moors, M.A., Ph. D., came to the reception.
--> Is used with mild interjections, words like YES/NO in direct address, and after the salutation of a personal letter.
Eg: Well, I don’t think that you are correct this time.
No, she quite disagreed with my suggestion.
Dear John, it has been some time since I have written…

2) The Semi-colon ( ; ):
--> Is used to link main clauses not joined by conjunction.
Eg: Some people can write well; others can not.
--> Is used to link main clauses joined by conjunctive adverbs ( however, furthermore, consequently ):
Eg: Speeding is illegal; Furthermore it is very dangerous.
--> Is used to link clauses which themselves contain commas even when such clauses are joined by conjunctions.
Eg: She lives in a small cottage in Cooma, miles from the nearest town; The cottage is without gas, running water or electricity.

3) The Colon ( : ):
--> Is used quotations, statements and series which are introduced formally.
Eg: Three countries were represented: England, France and Italy.
He began his speech: “Ladies and Gentlemen…”
--> Is used between two independent clauses when the second explains or amplifies the first.
Eg: Music is more than something mechanical: it is an expression of deep feeling and ethical values.
--> Is used before formal appositives, including those introduced by such expressions as: namely and that is.
Eg: Our conduct, the dean said, would have one result: dismissal.
He gave us only one warning: namely, that we should not demonstrate again.
--> Is used between hours and minutes to indicate time in bibliographical (thư mục) entries, etc.
Eg: The plane took off at 15:45’.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

4) The Full stop or period ( . ):
--> Is used to end a sentence which is neither a question or an exclamation.
Eg: She didn’t come as she had promised.
--> Is used after most abbreviation and contractions.
Eg: Mr., Dr., Ave., B.C.,…

5) The Exclamation mark ( ! ):
--> Is used after a word, phrase, or sentence to signal strong exclamatory feeling.
Eg: What a nice day!
“Help! Help!”, she cried loud.

6) The Question mark ( ? ):
--> Is used to end a direct question.
Eg: Do you understand what I say?
It is good for you, isn’t it?
--> Is used to indicate the writer’s uncertainty.
Eg: Pythagoras, who died in 497 B.C. (?) , was a great mathematician.

7) The Dash ( - ):
--> Is used to indicate interruption and special emphasis, and to introduce summaries.
Eg: He replied, “I will consider the – No, I won’t either.”
Attic fans, window fan, air conditioners – nothing would counteract the fierce humidity of that summer.
--> Is used to mark an abrupt change or break in the continuity of a sentence.
Eg: There are many doctors – indeed, some surgeons – who have never witnessed a heart transplant.
--> Is used to replace a word or part of a word that is considered taboo.
Eg: Oh, dear! Where is the – ing key?
--> Is used to indicate duration or distance between two points in time or space.
Eg: 1945 – 1998.
Southamton – New York.

8) The Parentheses ( ):
--> Are used to enclose loosely related comment or explanation within a sentence, and to enclose figures numbering items in a series.
Eg: The oil company refused to buy the land (1) because the owner had no clear title to the property and (2) because it was too far from the company’s other wells.
He is hoping (as we all are) that this time he will succeed.
He was vice chairman of that company (1992 – 1995).

9) The Square Brackets [ ]:
--> Are used to enclose interpolations in quotations.
Eg: I have read some famous literature works , such as: Don Quixote [by Miguel de Servantes], and Ivanhoe [by Sir Walter Scott].

10) The Quotation marks ( “ ” or ‘ ’ ):
--> Are used to enclose direct quotations and dialogue.
Eg: He said: “I am leaving tomorrow morning.”
--> Are used to enclose the titles of essays, articles, short stories, short poems, etc.
Eg: “The secret life of Walter Mitty” is the story of a day-dreamer.
--> Are used to enclose words or phrases borrowed from others or used in a special way.
Eg: He called him “emperor” but he was really just a director.
--> Are used to disclaim responsibility for an expression.
Eg: He was arrested for smuggling “crag”.
Her “hubby” had bought her a new car.

11) The Apostrophe ( ' ):
--> Is used to indicate the possessive case of nouns and indefinite pronouns.
Eg: This is Mary’s bag.
To make up one’s mind is not easy sometimes.
--> Is used to mark omission in contracted words.
Eg: isn’t, didn’t,…

12) The Hyphen ( - ):
--> Is used to mark the break an unfinished word at the end of a line.
--> Is used between a prefix and a proper name or when the emphasis is on the prefix.
Eg: Co-ordination, Ex-directory, Post-Renaissance…
--> Is used in compound numerals form twenty-one to ninety-nine.
Eg: Twenty-four, fifty-seven, eighty-eight.
--> Is used between parts of compound words.
Eg: Form-word, body-building, pocket-book, head-noun…
--> Is used between elements of the modifier in attributive position in order to avoid ambiguity.
Eg: He is a small-businessman.
She has grey-green eyes.
He looked across her with a don’t-ask-me expression.

Some pictures

4th Year 2008